The Making of the Black Parent: (Re) Claiming and Celebrating the African American Parenting Practices that Sustain Thriving Black Communities

ABSTRACT

This systematic literature review explores the ways in which Black parents’ experiences of interpersonal and vicarious racism impacts parenting strategies and parent-child attachment. Using established guidelines published by PRISMA, 269 studies were identified and subject to abstract review.  Of the 22 articles included in the study, findings suggest that the majority (82%) of empirical studies on this topic focus on racial socialization (41%) and parenting styles (41%), 68% of studies identified used a quantitative over qualitative research design, and none of the included studies approached this topic from an Afrocentric research orientation. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Keya F. Williams, M.Ed., 

Christopher T. H. Liang, Ph.D., 

Chisom F. Onwuegbu, B.A.

Lehigh University, College of Education

INTRODUCTION

Ø  Black lives have lacked the safety and protections afforded to the dominant group in America.

Ø  Parenting while Black in America requires a different mindset and set of skills than those required of White parents.

Ø  Research on parenting often fail to account for America’s history of racial oppression and the impact that has on Black parents’ parenting strategies and parent-child relationships.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Ø  Question 1: How does a parents’ experiences of interpersonal and/or vicarious racial discrimination influence parenting practices, strategies, and styles?

Ø  Question 2: How does a parents’ experiences of racial discrimination influence parent/child bonding and attachment?

Ø  Question 3: What research orientations and methods of study have been employed to investigate this topic?

METHODOLOGY

Initial Literature Review

• Keywords: Parenting*, Black, African American, Racism, Bias, Discrimination, Prejudice
• Databases: PsychInfo, PsychArticles, & Social Science Premium Collection of peer reviewed articles
• Duplicate articles from databases removed

Inclusion Criteria

• All years up until December 2022
• Study conducted from parents’ perspective of parenting practices/strategies/bonding
• Research explicitly addresses parents’ experiences of interpersonal and/or vicarious racism
• Article addresses parenting strategies and/or parent-child bonding/attachment
• Parent participants self-identify as Black/African American
• Parents’ children identify as Black/African American
• Study based in the United States

Coding Process

• Developed coding book of operationally defined inclusion criteria
• Two coders assessed the same abstract/title screen and assessed interrater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa =.68-.8 for substantial agreement)
• Coders coded remaining articles independently
• Remaining 48 articles coded by three individuals for study inclusion

Interrater Reliability Checks

• First round co-coding of 20 abstracts: Cohen’s Kappa=.78
• Discrepancies discussed and code book edited
• Second round independent coding of 50 abstracts
• Third round co-coding IRR check of 10 abstracts: Cohen’s Kappa=.76
• Discrepancies discussed and code book edited
• Final of the 269 abstracts coded independently by two coders

STATEMENT OF POSITIONALITY

The primary author is a middle-aged, middle-class, cis-gendered, heterosexual, African American, married mother of three Black children. These social locations frame her research inquiry and analysis.

RESULTS

PRISMA Flowchart

  

 

DISCUSSION

Limitations

1. Review conceptualized from a Eurocentric worldview to adhere to PRISMA guidelines, which values objectivity. This is counter to an Afrocentric research worldview (Reviere, 2001).
2. Only included studies addressing Black parents’ interpersonal and/or vicarious racism, thereby omitting research on systemic racism’s impact on Black parental functioning.

Future Directions & Takeaways

1. Only 9% of studies addressed the relationship of parents’ racial discrimination and attachment. Understanding this connection may elucidate intervention opportunities for strengthening attachments in Black co-parenting and parent-child relationships.
2. With 68% quantitative designs, more qualitative studies that explore and describe this phenomenon are needed.
3. No studies adhered to all 3 operationally defined aspects of Afrocentric research which include: a) instruments developed/normed by Black people, b) findings/analysis validated by study participants, and c) investigator acknowledgment of their social locations and positionality in the research. Thus, much can be explored using an Afrocentric research orientation in understanding parents of the African Diaspora.
4. 82% of studies focused on racial socialization and parenting styles, suggesting that Black parents excel in using proactive methods for their child's protection and positive identity development.
5. 9% of studies addressed health outcomes, indicating a need to explore the impact of parental racism and generational health and well-being.

REFERENCE LIST OF STUDIES INCLUDED IN REVIEW

1.       Anderson, R. E., Hussain, S. B., Wilson, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Williams, J. L. (2015). Pathways to pain: Racial discrimination and relations between parental functioning and child psychosocial well-being. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(6), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414548511

2.       Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., Kogan, S. M., Murry, V. M., Logan, P., & Luo, Z. (2008). Linking perceived discrimination to longitudinal changes in African American mothers’ parenting practices. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(2), 319–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00484.x

3.       Caldwell, C. H., Antonakos, C. L., Tsuchiya, K., Assari, S., & De Loney, E. H. (2013). Masculinity as a moderator of discrimination and parenting on depressive symptoms and drinking behaviors among nonresident African-American fathers. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029105

4.       Condon, E. M., Barcelona, V., Ibrahim, B. B., Crusto, C. A., & Taylor, J. Y. (2022). Racial discrimination, mental health, and parenting among African American mothers of preschool-aged children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(3), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.05.023

5.       Cooper, S. M., Burnett, M., Johnson, M. S., Brooks, J., Shaheed, J., & McBride, M. (2020). ‘That is why we raise children’: African American fathers’ race-related concerns for their adolescents and parenting strategies. Journal of Adolescence, 82, 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.06.001

6.       Cooper, S. M., Robbins, P. A., Burnett, M., McBride, M., Shaheed, J., & Smith, N. A. (2020). African American fathers’ coping patterns: Implications for father-son involvement and race-related discussions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101163

7.       Cooper, S. M., Smalls-Glover, C., Metzger, I., & Griffin, C. (2015). African American fathers’ racial socialization patterns: Associations with racial identity beliefs and discrimination experiences. Family Relations, 64(2), 278–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12115

8.       Crouter, A. C., Baril, M. E., Davis, K. D., & McHale, S. M. (2008). Processes linking social class and racial socialization in African American dual-earner families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(5), 1311–1325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00568.x

9.       Dow, D. M. (2016). The deadly challenges of raising African American boys: Navigating the controlling image of the “thug.” Gender & Society, 30(2), 161–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243216629928

10.   Galán, C. A., Meza, J. I., Ridenour, T. A., & Shaw, D. S. (2022). Racial discrimination experienced by Black parents: Enduring mental health consequences for adolescent youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(10), 1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.04.015

11.   Holloway, K., & Varner, F. (2021). Parenting despite discrimination: Does racial identity matter? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(4), 781–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000452

12.   Holloway, K., & Varner, F. (2021). Maternal race-related stressors and African American adolescents’ academic and behavioral outcomes. Family Relations, 70(2), 603–618. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12540

13.   Landor, A. M., Simons, L. G., Simons, R. L., Brody, G. H., Bryant, C. M., Gibbons, F. X., Granberg, E. M., & Melby, J. N. (2013). Exploring the impact of skin tone on family dynamics and race-related outcomes. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(5), 817–826. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033883

14.   McNeil Smith, S., Reynolds, J. E., Fincham, F. D., & Beach, S. R. H. (2016). Parental experiences of racial discrimination and youth racial socialization in two-parent African American families. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(2), 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000064

15.   Mitchell, S. J., Lewin, A., Horn, I. B., Valentine, D., Sanders-Phillips, K., & Joseph, J. G. (2010). How does violence exposure affect the psychological health and parenting of young African-American mothers? Social Science & Medicine, 70(4), 526–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.10.048

16.   Murry, V. M., Brown, P. A., Brody, G. H., Cutrona, C. E., & Simons, R. L. (2001). Racial discrimination as a moderator of the links among stress, maternal psychological functioning, and family relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(4), 915–926. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00915.x

17.   Murry, V. M., Gonzalez, C. M., Hanebutt, R. A., Bulgin, D., Coates, E. E., Inniss-Thompson, M. N., Debreaux, M. L., Wilson, W. E., Abel, D., & Cortez, M. B. (2022). Longitudinal study of the cascading effects of racial discrimination on parenting and adjustment among African American youth. Attachment & Human Development, 24(3), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2021.1976926

18.   Parks, J. B.-W., Lennette. (2001). “SO THAT OUR SOULS DON’T GET DAMAGED”: THE IMPACT OF RACISM ON MATERNAL THINKING AND PRACTICE RELATED TO THE PROTECTION OF DAUGHTERS. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 22(1), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/mhn.22.1.77.98

19.   Saleem, F. T., English, D., Busby, D. R., Lambert, S. F., Harrison, A., Stock, M. L., & Gibbons, F. X. (2016). The impact of African American parents’ racial discrimination experiences and perceived neighborhood cohesion on their racial socialization practices. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(7), 1338–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0499-x

20.   Thomas, A. J., Speight, S. L., & Witherspoon, K. M. (2010). Racial socialization, racial identity, and race-related stress of African American parents. The Family Journal, 18(4), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480710372913

21.   Threlfall, J. M. (2018). Parenting in the shadow of Ferguson: Racial socialization practices in context. Youth & Society, 50(2), 255–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X16670280

22.   Varner, F., Hou, Y., Ross, L., Hurd, N. M., & Mattis, J. (2020). Dealing with discrimination: Parents’ and adolescents’ racial discrimination experiences and parenting in African American families. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(2), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000281

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